[Abstract] It is agreed that language is a component of culture and reflects it; translation is not only the linguistic but also the communication of cultures. Culture background knowledge is concerned with geographic chatacteristics,historical ,tradition, social customs ,religion arts and other aspects of a society. Also it conditions the psychological make-up of individuals. The refore, target language readers may experience culture shock from translations do not properly deal with the factors of cultures as a result of thEir lack of cultural background knowledge, This paper discusses the influence of knowledge of cultures on translation, and concludes that translators should have a vast and precise understanding of the two cultures concerned.
[Key Words] culture; translation; cultural background knowledge
[摘 要] 语言不仅是文化的组成部分，也是文化的反映形式。翻译不仅仅是语言间的转换，而且是文化间的交流活动。文化背景知识涉及 历史 、地理特征、传统、 社会 风俗、宗教、 艺术 以及社会的各个方面。同时，文化背景知识也 影响 了社会成员的心理结构。因此，如果翻译者缺乏文化背景知识并因此不能恰当处理好原文中的文化因素，译文读者可能要面对激烈的文化冲击。本文将主要讨论译者文化背景知识对翻译的影响。最后得出结论：翻译者应该对相关的两种文化都有广泛而深入的认识。
[关键词] 文化；翻译；文化背景知识
1. Introduction
According to the tradition theory of translation, people considered translating activities as a process of transfer between two languages. In the 1970s, the study of translation tended to develop in several directions. It was no longer restricted to the tradition aesthetic and linguistic study and become cultural rethinking.
According to the theories of Mary Snell-Hornby, Bassnett and Lefevere, we can conclude that translation is to present in another culture the meaning and implication that the text has in a specific cultural context. In nature, translation is a kind of communication between cultures. During the process of translation, the interpretation and expression of the connotation of culture emerge as problems to be solved at the first place. That requires the translators not only should have bilingual abilities but also should have the knowledge of two cultures of, even several cultures. In 1993, Nida pointed out that, for the truly successful translation, the knowledge of two cultures is more important than the bilingual ability. [1]
E.B.Tylor, an anthropologist, thought culture is a complicated gathering, including knowledge, belief, arts, moral standards, law, customs and all the abilities and habits of individuals as members of a society.[2] The scope of culture is extremely wide-ranging .Language is the reflection of culture .Any kind of language bases on the ground of certain culture. So, the cultural characteristics of language include the way of thinking, psychological make-up, historical, tradition, social customs, believes and geographic features that the language reflects. To understand the source language and the original text, translators have to analyze those cultural characteristics of a language.
2. Culture and language
Culture is a complicated system including and influencing almost all the aspects of life in a society. The language that the society uses is no exception. However , language also influences culture. Language and culture influences each other and reflects each other.
2.1 Culture and language
E. B. Tylor, an anthropologist, said that culture is a complicated combination including knowledge, belief, arts, ethics, laws, customs and the ability and habits of individuals as members of a society. Here knowledge refers to academic subjects, both scientific and not scientific, for example, mathematics and linguistics. Belief could be divided into two sorts, political and religious, which are different among peoples and often course different comprehension and even conflicts. Examples are Christianity in the west countries and Islam in the Muslin countries. Arts comprise painting, architecture, sculpture, literature, opera, dancing, music etc. (Some people maintain that film is also a sort of the arts.) Ethics is a set of principles that people use to decide what is right and what is wrong.
The scope of culture is not measurable. Language is a part of it. All languages grow on the ground of certain cultures.[3] Different languages are not just used, but also created in different cultural situations. Thus languages bear their characteristics in accordance with those of specific cultures. To understand the language appropriately, we have to analyze the cultural characteristics of it.
Language is a system of sounds, words, patterns, ect used by human’s to communicate thoughts and feelings. We begin our preview of language by noting that it is impossible to separate our use of language from our culture. In its most basic sense, language is a set of symbols and the rules for combining those symbols that are used and understood by a large community of people. When we study another language, we soon discover that not only are the symbols (words) and sounds for those symbols different, but also are the rules (phonology, grammar, syntax and intonation) for using those symbols and sounds.
Word differences are obvious in various languages. In English, we live in a house. In Spanish, we live in a casa. In Tai, we live in a ban. Phonology also varies culturally. In English, we have 21 consonants and 5 vowels and combine to form 38 various phonemes. Vietnamese has 34 segmental phonemes consisting of vowels, semi-vowels and consonants. The Filipino language has 21 consonants and 13 vowels that form 26 phonemes. Grammatical structures are unique to each language as well. In English, we have singular and plural nouns and pronouns, but in Korean, the distinction between singular and plural is made by the context of the sentence. In English, verb tenses express contrast between past, present, and future acts, but in Vietnamese, the same verb reflects all three and the time of the action is inferred from the context. Syntax, or the word order and structure in the sentence, also varies depending on the language. The normal word order for simple sentences in Vietnamese is the reverse of the word order in English. That is, the predicate is followed by the subject. For example, the English sentence "The teacher died" would be "Namatay ang guro" or "Died the teacher" in Filipino. In English the subject is followed by a verb and then an object, but in Japanese, the subject is followed by the object and then the verb. So in English we might say, "John saw the dog." but in Japanese, "John the dog saw" would be correct. [4]
These examples indicate that if we want to communicate in another language, it is important for us to know not only the symbols (words) of that language, but also the rules for using those symbols. As we know, language is much more than symbol and rule system that allow us to communicate with other person——language also shape the process by which people become introduced to the order of the physical and social environment.
2.2 Relationship between language and culture
Language and culture influence each other, reflect each other and co-exist with each other. Different cultures result in different language. Different languages in turn cause different communicative patterns and finally differences between cultures.
Language and its cultural influence are exemplified in the theoretical formulations of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, which states that Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters people’s perception and the way they categorize experiences. This hypothesis implies that proclaimed that the structure of the language people habitually use influences the ways they think and behave. That is to say, different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around, they think and speak differently [5]. Sapir wrote: Human beings do not live in the objective world alone, nor in the world of social activity as ordinarily understood, but are very much at the mercy of the particular language which has become the medium of the expression of their society... The real world is to a large extent unconsciously built on the language habits of the group. No two languages are ever sufficiently similar to be considered as representing the same social reality. The worlds in which different societies live are distinct worlds, not merely the same world with different labels attached.
A good illustration of this point is the word snow in Eskimo and English. The Eskimos have countless words for snow. For them snow is extremely important and so crucial to life that each of its various forms and conditions is named. In English-speaking cultures, snow is far less important and the simple word snow usually suffices the needs. When some needs become more specific, however, longer phrases can be made up to meet these needs: "corn snow", "fine powder snow ", and "drifting snow". Once again this proves that there is a connection between the words a culture selects and the ideas and things of that culture. In short, each culture presents to its members, either consciously or subconsciously through words, the ideas and concepts that culture transmits from generation to generation [6].
Another instance of how language defines experience can be seen in the Navajo language, which emphasis the nature and the direction of movement. Rather than saying, "One dresses," the Navajo would say, one move into clothing." Instead of saying, "One is young," the Navajo would say, "One moves about newly." Language is one aspect of the Navajo nature that coincides with the notion of universe in motion.
Although complete acceptance of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis may be controversial, its application of culture and language is clear: language is the reflection of culture, and culture is a shape of language. We have seen that culture influences language by way of symbols and rules as well as our perception of the universe. Equally important is the fact that meaning shifts from culture to culture.
2.3 Different language and culture lead to different communicative pattern
Chinese communication pattern and use of language are similar to those of Japanese and Koreans. The Chinese tend to be situation-oriented and to view events in relation to the totality. For the Chinese, this total view, an is-or-is-not polarity is avoided. In English, people and thing are placed in a continuum—big and small, good and bad, black and white. For the Chinese, middle values are articulated and a reciprocal relationship between the two extremes is emphasized. For example, the Chinese may refer to love and hate as deference and politeness, they would like to say:”我对她有点意思!”instead of “我爱她!”, and”我懒得理他!”instead of “我讨厌他!”. This focus on the quality of the continuum is a reflection of the Chinese belief in the principle of nature, yin (passive) and yang (active). This polite principle combines to produce everything that comes to be. It makes people more concordant and avoids the communication conflict.
We have alluded to the fact that the use of direct and indirect language is a major linguistic difference between North Americans and many Asian cultures, such as the Chinese. Most North Americans learn to say yes and no as a means of expressing their individual views. Being a collective culture, the Chinese usually use yes and no to express the respect for the feeling of the others. In other words, to say yes for no or no for yes is largely a reflection of the indirect approach to communication. For example, Chinese and English have a different answer for “you are not a student, are you?” For the Chinese students, he will answer:“不，我是学生。”For the English student, he will answer: " yes, I am " That is because the western people chose "question-oriented ", and the Chinese chose fact-oriented through which undesirable interpersonal communication can be avoided. This contrary-to-face-value aspect of Asian verbal language behavior can be confusing to North Americans.
The indirect use of language is evident in ways other than the use of yes and no. For example, an American host or hostess, when complimented on his of her cooking, is likely to respond, "Oh, I am so glad you like it. I cooked it especially for you." In contrast, the Chinese host and hostess will instead apologize profusely for giving you nothing even slightly edible and for not showing you enough honor for not providing enough dishes.
Another example of Chinese indirect language is evident in their practice of politely refusing an offer three times before they accept. It has also left many Chinese hungry at an American table. An American hostess commented on this situation:
Once you have learnt the signal and how to respond, life becomes infinitely easier. When Chinese guest comes, I know I should immediately ask if they'd like a cup of tea. They will respond, "Please don't bother,” which is my signal to fetch tea.
The language of English is used differently as we move among many English-speaking countries. In Great Britain, the language is interspersed with euphemisms that enable the speakers to avoid expressing strong feelings. For instance, when English persons wish to disagree with someone, they are liable to preface a request, as in "I'd be awfully grateful if •••" of "Thank you very much indeed. This restraint is also very evident in the differences between American and British word choice". Compare the following signs in the United States and in England:
U.S.: "No dogs allowed."
England: "We regret that in the interest of hygiene, dogs are not allowed in the
premises."
U.S.: "Video controlled."
England: "Notice: In the interest of our regular customers, these premises are
now equipped with central security-circuit television. "
U.S.: "Please keep hands off door.”
England: "Obstructing the door causes delay and can be dangerous.”
From the above discussion, we may conclude that how the British uses English reflects their pursuing of politeness and friendliness, while the Americans stress accuracy and simplicity. Comparatively, the Chinese prefers middle value and try to avoid polarity.
Our goal in this section has been to convey the fact that, different language and culture lead to different communicative pattern, language and culture is inseparable from each other in communicative pattern. Culture influences language symbols and rules for using those symbols. As we have also seen, meaning is culturally determined. At the same time language is the carrier of culture. Language in communicative pattern also is one of the elements in culture-nativized of translation. In fact, translation just set the influence on readers by language.
3. Culture and translation
Cross-cultural communication is communication between people from different cultures. With the study of translation going further, the idea that translation is for cross-cultural communication was put forth by linguists and translators. Newmark has two statements: "translation is the most economical method of explaining one culture's way to another" and "translation mediates cultures". Snell-Hornby states “translation is not ‘interlingual transfer’ but ‘cross-cultural transfer’" (Snell-Hornby, 1988:39) [7]. Lame Hewson and Jacky Martin (1993:25) also state that translation is the exploration of an unbridgeable gap and of a tension between cultures, and its function is to develop cross-cultural construction while at the same time bridging and underlying the differences. As a significant medium for cultural exchange, translation aims to promote understanding among different countries and nations, hence to improve communication cross cultures.
Translation from language to language is in fact translation from culture to culture. Bassnett (1991:13) [8] believes that translation must take place in a framework of culture. Translation, as cross—cultural communication must be made on a lingual basis and on a cultural one, because language and culture are so interdependent that the one implies the other. Culture finds its expression in the language and through the language. Cultural specifics influence the way the language unites are used and understood. The translator renders into another language what the language with the original message means in the culture. And therefore, linguistic theories of translation must incorporate cultural aspects as well.
Translation as cross-cultural communication is associated with two cultural contexts in which their cultural content is conveyed in two different languages, and it lays emphasis on how to convey in a precise way the original cultural connotation and how to interpret it on the native cultural perspective so as to achieve effective communication, and requires the translators should transfer the cultural message of the source language to the target readers, both faithfully and validly. And therefore, translator should not only respect the source culture, but also the target culture, and help bring about communication between the members of different linguistic and cultural communities.
In order to achieve faithful and valid communication, translators should take seriously into consideration the cultural psychological factors concerned. Cultural psychological, which underlines the variety of language usage and language habits, come to the most important area of translation studies. The way of thinking, beliefs, attitude, and values of different cultures not only give rise to failure of misunderstanding in cross-culture communication, but also pose headaches to translators and translation theorists who are trying to bridge the gaps between source language texts and target language texts, and intention of source language authors and receiving capacity of target language readers.
4. Influence of Cultural Background On translation
Culture can be divided into several parts, so for cultural background knowledge. Study those parts one by one is a reasonable method of understanding a specific culture.
4.1The influence of knowledge of history on translation
History of a country may last for thousands of years. Even natives know not all the past events, not to mention the foreigners. To fulfill the obligation of translation as a cross-cultural communication, translators should have extensive knowledge of history, especially that of the source culture.
Knowledge of history affects the accurate translation of political terms. For example, 香港回归has two official translations because of different cognitions of history. Proceeding from their own position on the question, British government used the expression "Hongkong Handover". [9] On the contrary, the official translation of China is "to resume the exercise of sovereignty over Hongkong". That is because Hongkong has been a part of China in the long process of history. Britain only seized the "sovereignty" of Hongkong from the declining government of the Qing Dynasty by the means of war.
The certain words in a certain age are difficult to translator. For example, in the period of “the revolution of culture” of China, people usually like to say the sentence: “我们不搞实用主义” . We can’t translate “we do not advocate pragmatism.” In western countries, “pragmatism is praised” a method of philosophy in which the truth of a proposition is measured by its correspondence with experimental results and by its practical outcome”(the new Colombia encyclopedia.3rd ed) 实用主义is a derogatory term in china, but in western countries ,it has the extended meaning in philosophy as follow; “an excellent plan which can get expediency.”(有利可图的权宜之计)So ,we can translate the sentence: We never base our policies on expediency. This sentence not only shows the word exact use in Chinese but also give the correct meaning to the foreigner who do not know the certain meaning in china at that certain ages. [10]
4.2The influence of knowledge of geographic characteristics on translation
Geographic characteristics not only influence the material life of a country, they also influence the language and the culture.
Differences between geographic characteristics cause differences between languages. England is an island surrounded by waters. Because of the rich fish resources, fishing is an important economic activity and many English expressions are associated with fish. For example, a fish out of fish, big fish in a pound, drink like a fish, all is fish that comes to one's net, feed the fish etc. It is easy to see geographic characteristics have a influence on language. It reflects on the pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar and so on. It has a importance function on playing up the nation’s language and culture when we want to translate the sense of reality in those geographic characteristics.
China is rich in mountain and forest and bamboo is very common there. In Chinese people say 雨后春笋 (spring up like bamboo shoot after a spring rain), while in English, people use "spring up like mushrooms" to express the same meaning. That is because the British are much familiar with mushroom instead of bamboo. And that is because it often rains in England and the wet condition is very suitable for the growth of mushrooms. [11]
Climate differences also result in cultural differences between languages. The Chinese poet, Yang Juyuan, wrote in «城东早春» :" 诗家清景在新春，绿柳才黄半未均。若待上林话似锦，出门俱是看花人。 "The following is the translation of Herbert A. Giles, a British sinologist:
The landscape which the poet loves is that of early May,
When budding greenness half concealed enwraps each willow spray,
The beautiful embroidery the days of summer yield,
Appeals to every bumpkin who may take his walk afield.
"Early May" is not the proper translation of早春 (early spring). Because it is already late spring in early May in China. Although the translator used it to achieve rhyming and did succeed, the translation took with it the wrong information. It may course the western readers to misunderstand that in China the early spring comes in early May.
Geographic characteristics cause specific natural phenomenon that exists only in a specific area. Readers in a different cultural context may never understand it if the translators don't make necessary explanation. Because of the special geographic condition of Chongqing, 棒棒军 exists as something distinctive in the city. It is translated in some foreign journals as "porters". On China Daily, the translation is" shoulder-pole corps------porters in Chongqing are called the shoulder-pole corps.”The former didn't express the regional characteristics of the word. It is in lack of humor and vividness that are found in the translation on China Daily. "Should-pole" catches the exact image of棒棒军, and "corps" reflects the bold and uninhibited character of people in the mountain city. [12]
[Key Words] culture; translation; cultural background knowledge
[摘 要] 语言不仅是文化的组成部分，也是文化的反映形式。翻译不仅仅是语言间的转换，而且是文化间的交流活动。文化背景知识涉及 历史 、地理特征、传统、 社会 风俗、宗教、 艺术 以及社会的各个方面。同时，文化背景知识也 影响 了社会成员的心理结构。因此，如果翻译者缺乏文化背景知识并因此不能恰当处理好原文中的文化因素，译文读者可能要面对激烈的文化冲击。本文将主要讨论译者文化背景知识对翻译的影响。最后得出结论：翻译者应该对相关的两种文化都有广泛而深入的认识。
[关键词] 文化；翻译；文化背景知识
1. Introduction
According to the tradition theory of translation, people considered translating activities as a process of transfer between two languages. In the 1970s, the study of translation tended to develop in several directions. It was no longer restricted to the tradition aesthetic and linguistic study and become cultural rethinking.
According to the theories of Mary Snell-Hornby, Bassnett and Lefevere, we can conclude that translation is to present in another culture the meaning and implication that the text has in a specific cultural context. In nature, translation is a kind of communication between cultures. During the process of translation, the interpretation and expression of the connotation of culture emerge as problems to be solved at the first place. That requires the translators not only should have bilingual abilities but also should have the knowledge of two cultures of, even several cultures. In 1993, Nida pointed out that, for the truly successful translation, the knowledge of two cultures is more important than the bilingual ability. [1]
E.B.Tylor, an anthropologist, thought culture is a complicated gathering, including knowledge, belief, arts, moral standards, law, customs and all the abilities and habits of individuals as members of a society.[2] The scope of culture is extremely wide-ranging .Language is the reflection of culture .Any kind of language bases on the ground of certain culture. So, the cultural characteristics of language include the way of thinking, psychological make-up, historical, tradition, social customs, believes and geographic features that the language reflects. To understand the source language and the original text, translators have to analyze those cultural characteristics of a language.
2. Culture and language
Culture is a complicated system including and influencing almost all the aspects of life in a society. The language that the society uses is no exception. However , language also influences culture. Language and culture influences each other and reflects each other.
2.1 Culture and language
E. B. Tylor, an anthropologist, said that culture is a complicated combination including knowledge, belief, arts, ethics, laws, customs and the ability and habits of individuals as members of a society. Here knowledge refers to academic subjects, both scientific and not scientific, for example, mathematics and linguistics. Belief could be divided into two sorts, political and religious, which are different among peoples and often course different comprehension and even conflicts. Examples are Christianity in the west countries and Islam in the Muslin countries. Arts comprise painting, architecture, sculpture, literature, opera, dancing, music etc. (Some people maintain that film is also a sort of the arts.) Ethics is a set of principles that people use to decide what is right and what is wrong.
The scope of culture is not measurable. Language is a part of it. All languages grow on the ground of certain cultures.[3] Different languages are not just used, but also created in different cultural situations. Thus languages bear their characteristics in accordance with those of specific cultures. To understand the language appropriately, we have to analyze the cultural characteristics of it.
Language is a system of sounds, words, patterns, ect used by human’s to communicate thoughts and feelings. We begin our preview of language by noting that it is impossible to separate our use of language from our culture. In its most basic sense, language is a set of symbols and the rules for combining those symbols that are used and understood by a large community of people. When we study another language, we soon discover that not only are the symbols (words) and sounds for those symbols different, but also are the rules (phonology, grammar, syntax and intonation) for using those symbols and sounds.
Word differences are obvious in various languages. In English, we live in a house. In Spanish, we live in a casa. In Tai, we live in a ban. Phonology also varies culturally. In English, we have 21 consonants and 5 vowels and combine to form 38 various phonemes. Vietnamese has 34 segmental phonemes consisting of vowels, semi-vowels and consonants. The Filipino language has 21 consonants and 13 vowels that form 26 phonemes. Grammatical structures are unique to each language as well. In English, we have singular and plural nouns and pronouns, but in Korean, the distinction between singular and plural is made by the context of the sentence. In English, verb tenses express contrast between past, present, and future acts, but in Vietnamese, the same verb reflects all three and the time of the action is inferred from the context. Syntax, or the word order and structure in the sentence, also varies depending on the language. The normal word order for simple sentences in Vietnamese is the reverse of the word order in English. That is, the predicate is followed by the subject. For example, the English sentence "The teacher died" would be "Namatay ang guro" or "Died the teacher" in Filipino. In English the subject is followed by a verb and then an object, but in Japanese, the subject is followed by the object and then the verb. So in English we might say, "John saw the dog." but in Japanese, "John the dog saw" would be correct. [4]
These examples indicate that if we want to communicate in another language, it is important for us to know not only the symbols (words) of that language, but also the rules for using those symbols. As we know, language is much more than symbol and rule system that allow us to communicate with other person——language also shape the process by which people become introduced to the order of the physical and social environment.
2.2 Relationship between language and culture
Language and culture influence each other, reflect each other and co-exist with each other. Different cultures result in different language. Different languages in turn cause different communicative patterns and finally differences between cultures.
Language and its cultural influence are exemplified in the theoretical formulations of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, which states that Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters people’s perception and the way they categorize experiences. This hypothesis implies that proclaimed that the structure of the language people habitually use influences the ways they think and behave. That is to say, different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around, they think and speak differently [5]. Sapir wrote: Human beings do not live in the objective world alone, nor in the world of social activity as ordinarily understood, but are very much at the mercy of the particular language which has become the medium of the expression of their society... The real world is to a large extent unconsciously built on the language habits of the group. No two languages are ever sufficiently similar to be considered as representing the same social reality. The worlds in which different societies live are distinct worlds, not merely the same world with different labels attached.
A good illustration of this point is the word snow in Eskimo and English. The Eskimos have countless words for snow. For them snow is extremely important and so crucial to life that each of its various forms and conditions is named. In English-speaking cultures, snow is far less important and the simple word snow usually suffices the needs. When some needs become more specific, however, longer phrases can be made up to meet these needs: "corn snow", "fine powder snow ", and "drifting snow". Once again this proves that there is a connection between the words a culture selects and the ideas and things of that culture. In short, each culture presents to its members, either consciously or subconsciously through words, the ideas and concepts that culture transmits from generation to generation [6].
Another instance of how language defines experience can be seen in the Navajo language, which emphasis the nature and the direction of movement. Rather than saying, "One dresses," the Navajo would say, one move into clothing." Instead of saying, "One is young," the Navajo would say, "One moves about newly." Language is one aspect of the Navajo nature that coincides with the notion of universe in motion.
Although complete acceptance of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis may be controversial, its application of culture and language is clear: language is the reflection of culture, and culture is a shape of language. We have seen that culture influences language by way of symbols and rules as well as our perception of the universe. Equally important is the fact that meaning shifts from culture to culture.
2.3 Different language and culture lead to different communicative pattern
Chinese communication pattern and use of language are similar to those of Japanese and Koreans. The Chinese tend to be situation-oriented and to view events in relation to the totality. For the Chinese, this total view, an is-or-is-not polarity is avoided. In English, people and thing are placed in a continuum—big and small, good and bad, black and white. For the Chinese, middle values are articulated and a reciprocal relationship between the two extremes is emphasized. For example, the Chinese may refer to love and hate as deference and politeness, they would like to say:”我对她有点意思!”instead of “我爱她!”, and”我懒得理他!”instead of “我讨厌他!”. This focus on the quality of the continuum is a reflection of the Chinese belief in the principle of nature, yin (passive) and yang (active). This polite principle combines to produce everything that comes to be. It makes people more concordant and avoids the communication conflict.
We have alluded to the fact that the use of direct and indirect language is a major linguistic difference between North Americans and many Asian cultures, such as the Chinese. Most North Americans learn to say yes and no as a means of expressing their individual views. Being a collective culture, the Chinese usually use yes and no to express the respect for the feeling of the others. In other words, to say yes for no or no for yes is largely a reflection of the indirect approach to communication. For example, Chinese and English have a different answer for “you are not a student, are you?” For the Chinese students, he will answer:“不，我是学生。”For the English student, he will answer: " yes, I am " That is because the western people chose "question-oriented ", and the Chinese chose fact-oriented through which undesirable interpersonal communication can be avoided. This contrary-to-face-value aspect of Asian verbal language behavior can be confusing to North Americans.
The indirect use of language is evident in ways other than the use of yes and no. For example, an American host or hostess, when complimented on his of her cooking, is likely to respond, "Oh, I am so glad you like it. I cooked it especially for you." In contrast, the Chinese host and hostess will instead apologize profusely for giving you nothing even slightly edible and for not showing you enough honor for not providing enough dishes.
Another example of Chinese indirect language is evident in their practice of politely refusing an offer three times before they accept. It has also left many Chinese hungry at an American table. An American hostess commented on this situation:
Once you have learnt the signal and how to respond, life becomes infinitely easier. When Chinese guest comes, I know I should immediately ask if they'd like a cup of tea. They will respond, "Please don't bother,” which is my signal to fetch tea.
The language of English is used differently as we move among many English-speaking countries. In Great Britain, the language is interspersed with euphemisms that enable the speakers to avoid expressing strong feelings. For instance, when English persons wish to disagree with someone, they are liable to preface a request, as in "I'd be awfully grateful if •••" of "Thank you very much indeed. This restraint is also very evident in the differences between American and British word choice". Compare the following signs in the United States and in England:
U.S.: "No dogs allowed."
England: "We regret that in the interest of hygiene, dogs are not allowed in the
premises."
U.S.: "Video controlled."
England: "Notice: In the interest of our regular customers, these premises are
now equipped with central security-circuit television. "
U.S.: "Please keep hands off door.”
England: "Obstructing the door causes delay and can be dangerous.”
From the above discussion, we may conclude that how the British uses English reflects their pursuing of politeness and friendliness, while the Americans stress accuracy and simplicity. Comparatively, the Chinese prefers middle value and try to avoid polarity.
Our goal in this section has been to convey the fact that, different language and culture lead to different communicative pattern, language and culture is inseparable from each other in communicative pattern. Culture influences language symbols and rules for using those symbols. As we have also seen, meaning is culturally determined. At the same time language is the carrier of culture. Language in communicative pattern also is one of the elements in culture-nativized of translation. In fact, translation just set the influence on readers by language.
3. Culture and translation
Cross-cultural communication is communication between people from different cultures. With the study of translation going further, the idea that translation is for cross-cultural communication was put forth by linguists and translators. Newmark has two statements: "translation is the most economical method of explaining one culture's way to another" and "translation mediates cultures". Snell-Hornby states “translation is not ‘interlingual transfer’ but ‘cross-cultural transfer’" (Snell-Hornby, 1988:39) [7]. Lame Hewson and Jacky Martin (1993:25) also state that translation is the exploration of an unbridgeable gap and of a tension between cultures, and its function is to develop cross-cultural construction while at the same time bridging and underlying the differences. As a significant medium for cultural exchange, translation aims to promote understanding among different countries and nations, hence to improve communication cross cultures.
Translation from language to language is in fact translation from culture to culture. Bassnett (1991:13) [8] believes that translation must take place in a framework of culture. Translation, as cross—cultural communication must be made on a lingual basis and on a cultural one, because language and culture are so interdependent that the one implies the other. Culture finds its expression in the language and through the language. Cultural specifics influence the way the language unites are used and understood. The translator renders into another language what the language with the original message means in the culture. And therefore, linguistic theories of translation must incorporate cultural aspects as well.
Translation as cross-cultural communication is associated with two cultural contexts in which their cultural content is conveyed in two different languages, and it lays emphasis on how to convey in a precise way the original cultural connotation and how to interpret it on the native cultural perspective so as to achieve effective communication, and requires the translators should transfer the cultural message of the source language to the target readers, both faithfully and validly. And therefore, translator should not only respect the source culture, but also the target culture, and help bring about communication between the members of different linguistic and cultural communities.
In order to achieve faithful and valid communication, translators should take seriously into consideration the cultural psychological factors concerned. Cultural psychological, which underlines the variety of language usage and language habits, come to the most important area of translation studies. The way of thinking, beliefs, attitude, and values of different cultures not only give rise to failure of misunderstanding in cross-culture communication, but also pose headaches to translators and translation theorists who are trying to bridge the gaps between source language texts and target language texts, and intention of source language authors and receiving capacity of target language readers.
4. Influence of Cultural Background On translation
Culture can be divided into several parts, so for cultural background knowledge. Study those parts one by one is a reasonable method of understanding a specific culture.
4.1The influence of knowledge of history on translation
History of a country may last for thousands of years. Even natives know not all the past events, not to mention the foreigners. To fulfill the obligation of translation as a cross-cultural communication, translators should have extensive knowledge of history, especially that of the source culture.
Knowledge of history affects the accurate translation of political terms. For example, 香港回归has two official translations because of different cognitions of history. Proceeding from their own position on the question, British government used the expression "Hongkong Handover". [9] On the contrary, the official translation of China is "to resume the exercise of sovereignty over Hongkong". That is because Hongkong has been a part of China in the long process of history. Britain only seized the "sovereignty" of Hongkong from the declining government of the Qing Dynasty by the means of war.
The certain words in a certain age are difficult to translator. For example, in the period of “the revolution of culture” of China, people usually like to say the sentence: “我们不搞实用主义” . We can’t translate “we do not advocate pragmatism.” In western countries, “pragmatism is praised” a method of philosophy in which the truth of a proposition is measured by its correspondence with experimental results and by its practical outcome”(the new Colombia encyclopedia.3rd ed) 实用主义is a derogatory term in china, but in western countries ,it has the extended meaning in philosophy as follow; “an excellent plan which can get expediency.”(有利可图的权宜之计)So ,we can translate the sentence: We never base our policies on expediency. This sentence not only shows the word exact use in Chinese but also give the correct meaning to the foreigner who do not know the certain meaning in china at that certain ages. [10]
4.2The influence of knowledge of geographic characteristics on translation
Geographic characteristics not only influence the material life of a country, they also influence the language and the culture.
Differences between geographic characteristics cause differences between languages. England is an island surrounded by waters. Because of the rich fish resources, fishing is an important economic activity and many English expressions are associated with fish. For example, a fish out of fish, big fish in a pound, drink like a fish, all is fish that comes to one's net, feed the fish etc. It is easy to see geographic characteristics have a influence on language. It reflects on the pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar and so on. It has a importance function on playing up the nation’s language and culture when we want to translate the sense of reality in those geographic characteristics.
China is rich in mountain and forest and bamboo is very common there. In Chinese people say 雨后春笋 (spring up like bamboo shoot after a spring rain), while in English, people use "spring up like mushrooms" to express the same meaning. That is because the British are much familiar with mushroom instead of bamboo. And that is because it often rains in England and the wet condition is very suitable for the growth of mushrooms. [11]
Climate differences also result in cultural differences between languages. The Chinese poet, Yang Juyuan, wrote in «城东早春» :" 诗家清景在新春，绿柳才黄半未均。若待上林话似锦，出门俱是看花人。 "The following is the translation of Herbert A. Giles, a British sinologist:
The landscape which the poet loves is that of early May,
When budding greenness half concealed enwraps each willow spray,
The beautiful embroidery the days of summer yield,
Appeals to every bumpkin who may take his walk afield.
"Early May" is not the proper translation of早春 (early spring). Because it is already late spring in early May in China. Although the translator used it to achieve rhyming and did succeed, the translation took with it the wrong information. It may course the western readers to misunderstand that in China the early spring comes in early May.
Geographic characteristics cause specific natural phenomenon that exists only in a specific area. Readers in a different cultural context may never understand it if the translators don't make necessary explanation. Because of the special geographic condition of Chongqing, 棒棒军 exists as something distinctive in the city. It is translated in some foreign journals as "porters". On China Daily, the translation is" shoulder-pole corps------porters in Chongqing are called the shoulder-pole corps.”The former didn't express the regional characteristics of the word. It is in lack of humor and vividness that are found in the translation on China Daily. "Should-pole" catches the exact image of棒棒军, and "corps" reflects the bold and uninhibited character of people in the mountain city. [12]
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